A 2025 study involving Bifidobacterium strains demonstrated that probiotic-driven tryptophan metabolism produces indole derivatives that activate aryl hydrocarbon receptors (AhR), further upregulating proglucagon gene expression and GLP-1 synthesis (438)
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Conversely, in M1 macrophages, TGR5 activation enhances NF-B expression and pro-inflammatory factor production[65]
However, in the human diet, the myrosinase in cruciferous vegetables is often heat-inactivated during cooking, and in this situation glucosinolates can also be hydrolysed less efficiently by the colonic microflora ( Reference Fahey, Zalcmann and Talalay 9 )